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Rational Mysticism: Spirituality Meets Science in the Search for Enlightenment Kindle Edition
How do trances, visions, prayer, satori, and other mystical experiences “work”? What induces and defines them? Is there a scientific explanation for religious mysteries and transcendent meditation? John Horgan investigates a wide range of fields—chemistry, neuroscience, psychology, anthropology, theology, and more—to narrow the gap between reason and mystical phenomena. As both a seeker and an award-winning journalist, Horgan consulted a wide range of experts, including theologian Huston Smith, spiritual heir to Joseph Campbell; Andrew Newberg, the scientist whose quest for the “God module” was the focus of a Newsweek cover story; Ken Wilber, prominent transpersonal psychologist; Alexander Shulgin, legendary psychedelic drug chemist; and Susan Blackmore, Oxford-educated psychologist, parapsychology debunker, and Zen practitioner. Horgan explores the striking similarities between “mystical technologies” like sensory deprivation, prayer, fasting, trance, dancing, meditation, and drug trips. He participates in experiments that seek the neurological underpinnings of mystical experiences. And, finally, he recounts his own search for enlightenment—adventurous, poignant, and sometimes surprisingly comic. Horgan’s conclusions resonate with the controversial climax of The End of Science, because, as he argues, the most enlightened mystics and the most enlightened scientists end up in the same place—confronting the imponderable depth of the universe.
- LanguageEnglish
- PublisherMariner Books
- Publication dateMarch 22, 2004
- File size3143 KB
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Editorial Reviews
Review
“Informative, critical . . . fascinating and disturbing.” —Library Journal
“A great read, full of amusing vignettes and thoughtful reflections.” —The Washington Post
About the Author
Excerpt. © Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved.
Rational Mysticism
Dispatches from the Border Between Science and SpiritualityBy John HorganMariner Books
Copyright © 2004 John HorganAll right reserved.
ISBN: 061844663X
Excerpt
Introduction
Lena"s Feather
My wife, Suzie, is known in our hometown as a nurturer of birds. One
recent spring a neighbor brought her a crow hatchling he had found in the
woods. After failing to find its nest, Suzie decided to raise the crow, which
she named Lena. When she first arrived, Lena had blue eyes, as all fledgling
crows do, and she could barely walk, let alone fly. A cardboard box in the
corner of our living room served as her nest. When Suzie approached with
grape slices, moistened dog food pellets, and live mealworms, Lena flung
her head back and opened her beak wide. Suzie dropped the morsels into
Lena"s pink gullet, and Lena gulped them down.
Lena was soon hopping and flapping around the living room like a
gangly teen, crashing into chairs and windows, poking through our bric-a-
brac. After Suzie took her outside onto our deck, Lena launched herself
onto the roof of the house and into nearby trees. She always returned for
meals, and each night after dinner Suzie brought her inside for the night, until
one evening when Lena vanished into the woods. Suzie was distraught,
fearing that a hawk or an owl would kill the adolescent bird. But when Suzie
went outside at dawn with a plate of worms and grapes, Lena careened out of
the sky and skidded onto the deck, cawing.
That pattern persisted. Lena disappeared at night and returned
every morning for food and companionship. Because I am my family"s
earliest riser, she usually greeted me first. As I sipped coffee in my attic
office, caws approached through the skylight above my desk, followed by
wingbeats and claws scratching shingles. A moment later, Lena peered down
at me through the skylight, cooing. When I went out on the deck later to read
the newspaper, she crouched at my feet and yanked on my shoelaces or
perched on my shoulder and pecked the paper. I pretended to be annoyed,
shooing her away, and to my delight she kept coming back.
Lena loved playing tag with our kids, Mac, who was five then, and
Skye, who was four. As they chased her, she bounded on the ground
before them, occasionally pirouetting behind them and scooting between their
legs, staying just beyond their reach. She was fearless. When Mac and
Skye swooped back and forth on swings, she stood near the low point of
their trajectory and pecked at their rear ends whooshing by. Lena"s first love
was Suzie. When Suzie came outside, Lena would hop on her shoulder and
nestle against her neck, making noises of affection, as did Suzie.
We spent two magical months in this manner, with this wild
creature insinuating herself into our lives. One morning as I sat in my office
staring at my computer, I heard a howl of anguish from outside. I ran into
the back yard and found Suzie sitting on the ground, wailing, with Lena in her
lap. Lena"s glossy black form was limp, her blue eyes dim. Blood oozed
from her beak. She had been playing tag with Mac and Skye. One of them
had collided with Lena, breaking her neck. We buried her on a hillock near
our house. Suzie planted daffodils and tulips over her grave.
At the time, I was in the midst of research for this book. The next
morning, I was to fly to California to take part in a ceremony that called for
ingestion of ayahuasca, a powerful psychedelic substance made from two
Amazonian plants. Ayahuasca is an Indian word often translated as "vine of
the dead." For centuries, shamans in South America have used ayahuasca
to propel themselves into trances, during which they travel to a mystical
underworld and commune with spirits. Ayahuasca triggers violent nausea,
and its visions can be nightmarish. It has nonetheless recently become a
sacrament of sorts for spiritual adventurers around the world.
As I packed for the trip that evening, I felt a melancholy that
seemed out of proportion to Lena"s death, as upsetting as it had been. This
creature"s demise, I realized, reminded me how fragile all our lives are.
Everyone I love—my wife and children—is doomed, and can be taken from
me at any moment. My anticipation of the impending ayahuasca session
began mutating into dread. I feared that the vine of the dead would force me
into a more direct confrontation with death, and I wasn"t sure I felt up to the
challenge. The people supervising the ayahuasca session had asked each
participant to bring a "sacred object," something of personal significance.
So in my knapsack—along with my tape recorder, pens, notebook, and
several books—I put one of Lena"s feathers.
Looking for The Answer
I cannot recall exactly when I first learned about the extraordinary way of
perceiving, knowing, and being called mysticism. Certainly by the early
1970s, when I was in my late teens, the topic was impossible to avoid.
Everyone I knew seemed to be reading Siddhartha, Be Here Now, The
Doors of Perception, The Teachings of Don Juan, and other mystical texts.
Everybody was pursuing mystical epiphanies—satori, kensho, nirvana,
samadhi, the opening of the third eye—through Transcendental Meditation,
kundalini yoga, LSD, or all of the above.
And why not? Spiritual tomes ancient and modern promised that
mysticism is a route not only to ultimate truth—the secret of life, the ground
of being—but also to ultimate consolation. The supreme mystical state,
sometimes called enlightenment, was touted as a kind of loophole or
escape hatch in reality, through which we can wriggle out of our existential
plight and attain a supernatural, even divine, freedom and immortality.
Along with millions of others in my generation, I puzzled over
esoteric mystical books, and I dabbled in yoga, meditation, and
psychedelic drugs. I never dedicated myself to the mystical path, however.
Friends who had done so—typically by joining one of the countless guru-led
groups that sprang up in the 1960s and 1970s—seemed to have abandoned
their rationality and autonomy. Also, the insights I gleaned from my own
experiences were too confusing, and sometimes frightening, for me to make
good use of them. At a time when I was trying to make something of
myself, they were a destabilizing influence.
By the early 1980s, I had decided that science represents our
best hope for improving our condition—and for understanding who we are,
where we came from, where we"re going. Some physicists were seeking a
so-called theory of everything, an explanation of the physical universe so
encompassing that it might solve the biggest riddle of all: Why is there
something rather than nothing? Thrilled by science"s ambitions, I became a
science writer, and for more than a decade I wrote articles about particle
physics, cosmology, complexity theory, and other fields that promised
great revelations.
Gradually, I came to the conclusion that science can take us only
so far in our quest for understanding. Science will not reveal "the mind of
God," as the British physicist (and atheist) Stephen Hawking once
promised. Science will never give us The Answer, a theory powerful enough
to dispel all mystery from the universe forever. After all, science itself
imposes limits on what we can learn through rational, empirical inquiry. I
spelled out these conclusions in two books: The End of Science, which
analyzed science as a whole, and The Undiscovered Mind, which focused on
fields that address the human mind.
In both books, I briefly considered whether mystical experiences
might yield insights into reality that can complement or transcend what we
learn through objective investigations. In The End of Science, I alluded to a
drug-induced episode that had been haunting me since 1981. I kept this
section short, because I feared it might repel the scientifically oriented
readers for whom my book was intended. The opposite reaction occurred.
Many readers—including scientists, philosophers, and other supposed
rationalists—wrote to tell me that they found the section on mysticism the
most compelling part of the book. Readers related their own mystical
episodes, some ecstatic, others disturbing. Like me, these readers seemed
to be struggling to reconcile their mystical intuitions with their reason.
That was when I first considered writing a book on mysticism. I
wasn"t sure that the topic would warrant book-length treatment. As recently
as 1990 the psychologist Charles Tart, editor of Altered States of
Consciousness, a collection of scholarly articles on mysticism and other
exotic cognitive conditions, complained that so little research had been
done since his book"s publication in 1969 that it scarcely needed updating.
Attempts to reconcile science and mysticism had apparently not
progressed much beyond crude studies of meditators" brain waves and
claims of vague correspondences between quantum mechanics and Hindu
doctrine.
But I soon found that investigations of mysticism are proceeding
along a broad range of scholarly and scientific fronts. During the 1990s
ordinary consciousness, once considered beneath the notice of respectable
scientists, became a legitimate and increasingly popular object of
investigation. Emboldened by this trend, some scientists have begun
focusing on exotic states of consciousness, including mystical ones.
Researchers are sharing results at conferences such as "Worlds of
Consciousness," held in 1999 in Basel, Switzerland, the birthplace of LSD;
and in books such as The Mystical Mind, Zen and the Brain, and DMT: The
Spirit Molecule.
Their approaches are eclectic. Andrew Newberg, a radiologist at
the University of Pennsylvania, is scanning the brains of meditating
Buddhists and praying nuns to pinpoint the neural correlates of mystical
experience. The Canadian psychologist Michael Persinger tries to induce
religious visions in volunteers by electromagnetically stimulating their brains
with a device called the God machine. The Swiss psychiatrist Franz
Vollenweider has mapped the neural circuitry underlying blissful and horrific
psychedelic trips with positron emission tomography. The findings of
researchers like these are invigorating long-standing debates among
theologians, philosophers, and other scholars about the meaning of
mysticism and its relationship to mainstream science and religion.
This upsurge in scientific and scholarly interest has not brought
about consensus on mystical matters. Quite the contrary. Scholars
disagree about the causes of mystical experiences, the best means of
inducing them, their relation to mental illness and morality, and their
metaphysical significance. Some experts maintain that psychology and even
physics must be completely revamped to account for mysticism"s
supernatural implications. Others believe that mainstream, materialistic
science is quite adequate to explain mystical phenomena. Similarly,
scholars disagree about whether mystical visions affirm or undermine
conventional religious faith.
Eventually I decided that the time was right after all for a book on
mysticism. Most such books, whether written by philosophers of religion,
neurologists, or New Age gurus, hew to a particular theory or theology,
such as Zen Buddhism or psychedelic shamanism or evolutionary
psychology. My goal was to write a book as wide-ranging, up-to-date, and
open-minded as possible. The book would be journalistic, based primarily on
face-to-face interviews with leading theologians, philosophers, psychologists,
psychiatrists, neuroscientists, and other professional ponderers of
mysticism. I would assess their respective findings and conjectures, trying
to determine where they converge or diverge, where they make sense or go
off the deep end. To provide historical context, I would show how recent
mystical studies are both corroborating and advancing beyond inquiries
undertaken in the past by scholars such as William James and Aldous
Huxley. And I would discuss my personal experiences where relevant.
Mysticism"s schisms
Mysticism, the human-potential priestess Jean Houston warned me early
on in this project, begins in mist, has an I in the middle, and ends in schism.
Debate begins with definition. Mysticism is often defined, in a derogatory
sense, as metaphysical obfuscation, or belief in ghosts and other occult
phenomena. William James mentioned these meanings in his classic 1902
work The Varieties of Religious Experience before offering a definition that is
still widely cited. Mysticism, James proposed, begins with an experience
that meets four criteria: It is ineffable—that is, difficult or impossible to
convey in ordinary language. It is noetic, meaning that it seems to reveal
deep, profound truth. It is transient, rarely lasting for more than an hour or
so. And it is a passive state, in which you feel gripped by a force much
greater than yourself. Two qualities that James did not include in his formal
list but mentioned elsewhere are blissfulness and a sense of union with all
things.
In Cosmic Consciousness, published at around the same time as
The Varieties of Religious Experience, the Canadian psychiatrist Richard
Bucke described an experience that met all of James"s criteria. A carriage
was bearing Bucke home from an evening lecture when he was overcome
by "immense joyousness accompanied or immediately followed by an
illumination quite impossible to describe." The experience lasted only a few
moments, but during it Bucke "saw and knew" that "the Cosmos is not dead
matter but a living Presence, that the soul of man is immortal, that the
universe is so built and ordered that without any peradventure all things
work together for the good of each and all, that the foundation principle of the
world is what we call love and that the happiness of everyone is in the long
run absolutely certain."
But in The Varieties of Religious Experience, James made it clear
that mystical experiences may not be ineffable, transient, passive, blissful,
or unitive. Some mystics describe their supposedly ineffable visions at great
length. They may claim to be gifted not just with transient flashes of insight
but with a permanent shift in vision. They may feel not passive but powerful,
and the power seems to come from inside rather than outside them. And
while some mystics feel a blissful unity with all things, others perceive
absolute reality as terrifyingly alien. James called these visions
"melancholic"or "diabolical.&
Continues...
Excerpted from Rational Mysticismby John Horgan Copyright © 2004 by John Horgan. Excerpted by permission.
All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site.
Product details
- ASIN : B003WJQ6ZE
- Publisher : Mariner Books (March 22, 2004)
- Publication date : March 22, 2004
- Language : English
- File size : 3143 KB
- Text-to-Speech : Enabled
- Screen Reader : Supported
- Enhanced typesetting : Enabled
- X-Ray : Not Enabled
- Word Wise : Enabled
- Sticky notes : On Kindle Scribe
- Print length : 305 pages
- Best Sellers Rank: #669,393 in Kindle Store (See Top 100 in Kindle Store)
- #353 in Religious Studies - Science & Religion
- #384 in Mysticism (Kindle Store)
- #404 in Psychology & Religion
- Customer Reviews:
About the author
John Horgan is an award-winning science journalist and Director of the Center for Science Writings at Stevens Institute of Technology. His books include The End of Science, a U.S. bestseller translated into 13 languages; The Undiscovered Mind; Rational Mysticism; The End of War; Mind-Body Problems; Pay Attention, a lightly fictionalized memoir; and My Quantum Experiment. A former senior writer for Scientific American. Horgan has also written for The New York Times and many other publications. He writes a column called "Cross-check" for his website, johnhorgan.org.
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What I thought was its greatest weakness was a tendency toward narrow-minded intellectualism. I was drawn to this book because as a mystic I feel strongly that my practice and outlook should be grounded in disciplined rationality and critical analysis. The way I put it is that I believe that every mystic can benefit from having a well-calibrated bulls***detector. But for me, rationality is just a starting point. When it comes to mysticism, there are deeper ways to explore reality.These involve using faculties that can be cultivated through practice. The author seemed to be limited in his understanding by a lack of years of serious mystical practice himself. His analysis is often a bit glib and shallow at places. He seemed most interested in finding quick answers and some kind of a short cut--some "mystical technology"--that would take him to deep truths. He tended to intellectualize aspects of mysticism that are much more subtle and nuanced.
I am a great believer that science and mysticism should be friends. Neither should set themselves up as a final arbiter of truth, but instead should carry on an ongoing conversation characterized by mutual respect and keeping each other honest. For example, not being a scientist myself I try to be respectful of the limitations of my knowledge. Being a big fan I read a lot of science books, yet I know that while I can follow many of the conceptual distillations science writers provide, I don't speak the native language--i.e advanced mathematics--that would allow me to really understand and carry on analysis myself. A lot of smart people like Horgan tend to believe because they understand English they understand fully what mystics are saying. To his credit he did ask a lot of questions, but a lot of times his questions were reductive or he seemed have his thumb on the scale on the side of science as the final arbiter. His concepts of "enlightenment" and "attainment" are good examples. The kind of "attaining" he wrote about implied an ego-driven pursuit and his notion of "enlightenment" seemed to be the spiritual equivalent of winning the Mega Millions. In the end many of his critiques ended up being critiques of his own limited conceptions.
Still, the interviews are really interesting, and many of his reflections are deeply thoughtful, heartfelt and meaningful. He raises a lot of good questions and makes many valid critiques. As I said, I liked this book.
I find this book extremely fascinating and a good way of getting an overview and introduction to many alternative views of reality. Strongly recommended!
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As was pointed out by Marghanita Laski in her remarkable study of the subject, Ecstasy, experiences of this kind are not confined to a religious context but may occur even to atheists. Laski was writing half a century ago, just before the use of mind-altering drugs such as LSD and psilocybin became widespread, and also before Eastern forms of meditation and other spiritual practices became popular in the second half of the twentieth century. In the opinion of many, these developments made mysticism available to scientific investigation and removed it from the deadening grip of conventional (Christian) religion. Hence to speak of "secular mysticism" or even "rational mysticism" no longer seemed oxymoronic.
Horgan has himself had experience of drug-induced states and it was one of these that originally sparked his interest in mysticism. And his book concludes with an account of his sampling of ayahuasca, a currently fashionable drug (or drug cocktail) for the production of altered states of consciousness. Some researchers have enthusiastically hailed it as the supreme gateway to enlightenment, but no real illumination resulted in Horgan's case.
Most of the book, however, is not about Horgan's experiences of altered states but is based on his interviews with acknowledged "experts" in the field: theologians, philosophers, psychologists, psychiatrists, and neuroscientists. The first three chapters are intended to provide an overview of the territory. First we meet Huston Smith, an advocate of what Aldous Huxley called the Perennial Philosophy. This proposes that all mystics at all times have glimpsed the same Reality and that their pronouncements can mostly be reconciled with one another in spite of any surface differences there may be.
The second chapter explores the opposite view. Some philosophers and theologians think that differences among mystics reflect their backgrounds and that the diversity is so great that no universal truths can be extracted from what they say. Horgan talks to several of those who take this position, and points out, astutely, that if you reject the view that mysticism tells us anything of universal importance you come pretty close to saying that all mystical visions are illusions, since universal significance is often what the mystics themselves claim for their insights.
Chapter 3 is devoted to Ken Wilber, another proponent of the Perennial Philosophy who has constructed a vast, complex (and to me impenetrable) explanatory scheme for it. Moreover, Wilber practises what he preaches, for he claims to have attained a considerable level of "enlightenment" on a more or less permanent basis. Horgan found Wilber impressive but was disturbed by his apparent pride in his own spiritual attainment. Not even the Dalai Lama, Wilber said, could maintain self-awareness during sleep as he, Wilber, could. (The development of this state of consciousness is one of the aims of Transcendental Meditation, though it is not the final goal but merely a waystation on the path to final Enlightenment.)
The subsequent chapters are more concerned with science and with what might be called practical mysticism. Horgan interviewed eight scientists who have carried out empirical studies of mystical experience of various kinds. The interviewees include Andrew Newberg, the co-author of The Mystical Mind, which advocates "neurotheology"; James Austin, an exponent of Zen; Stanislav Grof, another transpersonal psychologist with a strong interest in the paranormal, including reincarnation and astrology; Terence McKenna, a kind of anti-guru who appeared to be subtly making fun of the whole enlightenment scene while also participating in it; and Susan Blackmore, a sceptic who nevertheless practises Zen meditation.
Another of those visited was Michael Persinger, a neuropsychologist who has built an apparatus for the electromagnetic induction of altered states of consciousness in volunteers. Horgan participated as a subject but nothing much happened. Persinger emerges from Horgan's account as the archetypal detached scientist and an ultra-sceptic, although, paradoxically, he is willing to entertain the possibility that mystical states may induce paranormal abilities in those who experience them. This surprised Susan Blackmore when Horgan told her about it.
As well as Wilber, some of those interviewed claimed to have attained, temporarily or permanently, states that would be described as "enlightened". One of these, John Wren-Lewis, achieved permanent self-awareness even in sleep (like Wilber) after he recovered from a coma caused by poisoning. Horgan suggests, probably correctly, that his "enlightened" state is the result of brain damage. If so, this raises interesting questions. Can "spiritual awakening", if that is what it is, sometimes arise from the loss of normal functioning? There is a parallel here to some reported cases in which people suffering from early dementia have acquired artistic abilities they had not previously displayed. (Other mystics or near-mystics who may have come into this category are John Lilly and Bede Griffiths, both now dead.)
The question that lies at the heart of all this talk about mysticism is: do these altered states of consciousness tell us anything about ourselves, the universe, or the Meaning of Life? There is no doubt that people often feel themselves to have been vouchsafed knowledge of this kind, and mystical or ecstatic experiences may affect the whole subsequent course of people's lives. But does this guarantee that the knowledge so gained is authentic? If it is, should we, as some Eastern religions advocate, devote our lives to seeking "enlightenment", or would this be simply to mire ourselves ever more deeply in a bog of self-deception?
The answer that Horgan reaches at the end of his exploration is, essentially, a negative one. Mystical experience, no matter how compelling it feels at the time, does not provide us with assurance of immortality or rebirth or of our cosmic significance. It also—and this seems to me to be important—does not endow those who attain it with superior moral wisdom: some apparently enlightened individuals have behaved as badly as anyone else. You may find this either liberating or depressing, depending on how you look at it.
This book will undoubtedly displease those who have already made up their minds firmly and have committed themselves irrevocably to the "search". Such people will find it unsettling if they read it at all. Others who are still hesitating, or who have begun to doubt whether what they are seeking may be a chimera, will find it illuminating.
It does, of course, have its limitations—how could it not, when it tackles such a vast subject? For one thing, as Horgan acknowledges at the outset, it is biased towards drug-induced states, partly because these have been extensively studied scientifically. He thinks that psychedelics have played a large part in the modern understanding of mysticism, which is probably true.
Another limitation arises from the fact that it is based on interviews, which makes it contemporary and up-to-date but prevents much reference to earlier ideas which might have been worth citing. For example, there is no mention of the late W.T. Stace, whose philosophy was founded on the conviction that the mystical intuition of Oneness is valid. And I think that the aforementioned Marghanita Laski's approach to mysticism, which links it with creativity, offers a useful way forward for the non-religious who try to understand these experiences, but it is not discussed here. But in its own terms Horgan's book seems to me to be one of the most important contributions to the subject to have appeared in recent years.